The Female Brain

intelligence animals

Is it possible to breed intelligence into animals?

As I am studying for a biology final, I read about how humans evolved to walk upright first, freeing their hands and that the evolutionary advantage bestowed by hand-eye cordination provided the competetive edge that led to the larger brains we have now. So would it then be possible to eliminate the competition aspect, take chimpanzees for example and breed only the ones with unusually large brains together, so that with human intervention, chimps are bred to be intelligent just as human beings? or even any other animal for that matter?
and by intelligence, I mean the ability to reason and communicate

Strictly speaking, the answer to your question is yes. Any organism can change indefinitely given the right conditions and enough time, and this includes breeding human-like intelligence into other animals. Evolution doesn't impose restrictions on variability, and since our intelligence evolved once already, it's obviously physically possible.

The task doesn't sound that hard: Just choose the smartest of an animal and breed them. I could see this process taking a very long time though. It's not helped by the fact that the animals that are already the most intelligent tend to have the longest gestation times and smallest liters, which means they evolve slowest.

Cheers!
Pye

Amazing Raven intelligence test - Clever Critters - BBC Animals

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On the Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals with Special Reference to Insects $21.45 On the Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals with Special Reference to Insects

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The Intelligence of Animals; With Illustrative Anecdotes $22.79 General Books publication date: 2009 Original publication date: 1869 Original Publisher: C. Scribner

On the Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals. $21.36 This is a reproduction of a book published before 1923. This book may have occasional imperfections such as missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. that were either part of the original artifact, or were introduced by the scanning process. We believe this work is culturally important, and despite the imperfections, have elected to bring it back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide. We appreciate your understanding of the imperfections in the preservation process, and hope you enjoy this valuable book.

Intelligence in Plants and Animals $25.92 This is an EXACT reproduction of a book published before 1923. This IS NOT an OCR''d book with strange characters, introduced typographical errors, and jumbled words. This book may have occasional imperfections such as missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. that were either part of the original artifact, or were introduced by the scanning process. We believe this work is culturally important, and despite the imperfections, have elected to bring it back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide. We appreciate your understanding of the imperfections in the preservation process, and hope you enjoy this valuable book.

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parts of brain and their functions

Visual Function::Can Omega3 Fish Oil Improve Vision?

 

The reason that fish oil is recommended for visual function has to do with an area in the eye known as the retina.  Omega-3 fatty acids are a major component of the retina.  Of specific importance is Docosahexaenoic acid or DHA, because it accounts for 60% of the fatty acids in the retina. 

Visual Function & Nutrients

There are many nutrients that are important to healthy visual function.  Beta-carotene is the reason that carrots are good for your eyes.  Too little in the diet causes night blindness and other vision problems.  Antioxidants known as lutein and zeaxanthin, which are abundant in a variety of vegetables, are major components of the light receptors found in the retina.

Macular Degeneration Disease

But the DHA in fish oil may be the most important nutrient when it comes to continued eye health, as a person ages.  One of the most common degenerative eye diseases is macular degeneration.  It is the most common cause of blindness in the elderly and there are no effective treatments for it. 

Disease Prevention

The macula is responsible for central vision.  The rest of the retina is responsible for peripheral vision.  In macular degeneration, central vision is lost, making it very difficult for people to function.  Reading or identifying people’s faces is no longer possible.  There are two types of the disease and omega-3 fatty acids may help prevent both of them.

One is the dry type, in which plaque forms on the retina, interfering with vision.  The plaque is composed primarily of hardened cholesterol and high cholesterol levels are associated with the disease.  Fish oil supplements are known to naturally lower LDL cholesterol levels. 

In the wet type, new blood vessels grow into the retina.  Sometimes they burst and the blood interferes with central vision.  Omega-3 fatty acids support healthy circulation and blood vessel strength.  Retinopathy, including diabetic retinopathy, the most common cause of blindness in patients with diabetes, may also be prevented because of the benefits to circulation.

Vision-Nerves-Brain Connection

Visual function is closely associated with nerve and brain health.  The omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil are necessary for both nerve and brain health.  DHA makes up 40% of the fatty acids in the brain and 50% of the weight of the membrane that surround our nerve cells.  Death of these cells in the brain occurs in Alzheimer’s.  In cases of severe depression, DHA is completely depleted in the cerebral cortex.

So, in addition to supporting visual function, as we age, the omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil support the health of the brain and reduce our risk of degenerative brain diseases.  They improve mood and the ability to concentrate.  They are beneficial for people with ADHD.  They may even reduce the risk of cancer.  Numerous studies have shown that omega3s inhibit the growth of colon cancer cells.  DHA was found to inhibit the growth more than the others. 

Improved visual function is just one of the many benefits that accompany increased intake of omega3s.  If you only take one supplement every day, it should be a DHA rich fish oil supplement. For more information on the benefits of fish oil/DHA and fatty acids, please visit my website listed below.  Thanks, Margaret Bell

 

About the Author

Please visit http://www.XtendFishOil.com for Larry's recommended source of Omega-3 Fish Oil and Nutritional Supplements that are guaranteed to be safe and effective. A FREE Health Newsletter is available.

Deep Brain Stimulation Part 1

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nervous system cerebrum

Detailed Information on Multiple System Atrophy

MSA is also known as Shy-Drager syndrome. Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) is an adult-onset disease with features of Parkinsonism, autonomic dysfunction, urinary dysfunction and cerebellar ataxia. Patients with MSA have more widespread damage to the autonomic nervous system, the part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions. The disorder is characterized by postural hypotension. Other symptoms may include stiffness and rigidity, loss of balance and coordination, impaired speech, breathing and swallowing difficulties, blurred vision, male impotence, constipation, and urinary difficulties.

Multiple system atrophy affects about twice as many men as women. MSA has been classified clinically into three types, the first of which primarily affects balance, coordination, and speech; a form which can parallel Parkinson’s disease because of slow movement and stiff muscles; and a mixed cerebellar and parkinsonian form. MSA results from degeneration of several parts of the brain and spinal cord. The basal ganglia (collections of nerve cells at the base of the cerebrum, deep within the brain), which help control voluntary muscle movements by balancing the actions of muscle groups that move the same muscles in opposite ways.

The cerebellum, which coordinates voluntary movements and helps maintain balance. Areas that manage the autonomic nervous system, which moderates involuntary body processes, such as how blood pressure changes in response to changes in posture. Nerve cells that encourage muscle action (motor neurons) in the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and spinal cord. There is no specific treatment for nerve degeneration in MSA. The goal of treatment is to control symptoms. Anticholinergic medications may be used to decrease early or mild tremors. Levodopa may improve movement and balance.

Dopamine and anticholinergic drugs may be prescribed to treat spasms. Orthostatic hypotension may be treated with flucortisone and other drugs that elevate blood pressure. Increased dietary fiber intake or use of laxatives may relieve constipation, and drugs or a penile implant may aid with male impotence. A routine of stretching and exercise can help retain muscle strength and range of movement. An artificial feeding tube or breathing tube may be surgically inserted for management of swallowing and breathing difficulties. Speech therapy is often useful to improve swallowing and communication.

About the Author

Juliet Cohen writes articles for haircuts tips. She also writes articles for hairstyles updos and hairstyles secrets.

Nervous system: Somesthetic, visual, and auditory sensation, and Wernicke's area

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biological behavior

Is Aggressive Behaviour Biologically or Environmentally Based?

Is Aggressive Behavior Biologically or Environmentally based? By Daena V. De Souza

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The nature versus nurture topic has been an unremitting debate for various aspects of human behavior including aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior is any behavior exhibited verbally or physically with the intention to destroy property or to injure or infuriate another person. There are studies supporting the source of aggression to be innate, indicating links between behavior and biochemical activities, while other studies have considered environmental and societal factors as influences on behavior.

The founder of behaviorism John B. Watson argued that the conditioned response was viewed as the smallest unit of behavior, from which more complicated behavior could be created. Evidence supporting aggression as a learned behavior comes from studies of behavior in experimental and natural settings, social learning theory and the effect of cultural and social variables.

Biological theories propose that aggression may have a chemical, hormonal or genetic component. Scientists have explored various possibilities of behavior. Some of the most compelling evidence comes from genetics, serotonin research and the influence of hormones on aggression.

The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the existing theories and research findings that support both the nativist view and the empiricist view and to reveal the relationship between biology and the environment in determining behavior.

Aggression is learned

2.1 Studies of behavior.

Controlled studies of behavior in experimental settings have demonstrated that aggressive behavior is similar to other operant behavior because it is influenced by rewards and punishment. We can use the example of the rat in the “skinner box” to demonstrate the effect of operant conditioning in experimental settings. When the rat presses the bar, it is rewarded with a food pellet. The food is the reward which reinforces the action that leads to the rat pressing the bar again in order to obtain another reward. This concept can be applied in the natural setting. If you give a child a toy to stop him or her from exhibiting temper tantrums, the toy will reinforce that behavior. Children then learn that aggression can enable them to control resources such as toys and gain parental attention. If after behaving aggressively, a subject receives positive reinforcement, they are likely to repeat the behavior in order to gain more rewards. This is a form of operant conditioning where the positive reinforcement encourages further display of aggression, concluding that aggression is learned through reinforcement.

2.2 Social learning theory.

Bandura, (1977), pioneered the social learning theory which emphasized the role of learning by observation of behavior. Bandura disputed that social imitation rather than Skinner’s model of reinforcement was responsible for aggressive behavior, implying that aggression is imitated rather than learned through conditioning. Research such as the Bobo Doll study (Bandura) has shown that aggression can be learnt through imitation. Children learn aggression by imitating adult actions from live experiences or from viewing violence through the media. Bandura concluded that viewing aggression increases the likelihood of the viewer acting aggressively. By demonstrating aggression one can unknowingly encourage aggression in suggestible children. They can learn that aggressive behavior is common and acceptable and can be used to solve problems, attain needs, influence another person or even make them a hero. The media portray the violent model as a hero who is rewarded. Children by imitation learn how to be violent and this behavior is reinforced by learning the “rewards” of violence.

2.3 Aggression is influenced by cultural and social factors.

Cohen and Nisbett (1994) attributed the existence of regional subcultural differences in aggression in the United States to different local norms for aggressive behavior. Society plays a fundamental role in influencing behavior. Poverty and crime has become an intrinsic part of society; which unfortunately molds the behavior of people through imitation and reinforcement. The residents of a high crime area such as Laventille, Trinidad form a social order where their lifestyle reinforces criminal activity as a means for survival. Members of this society know who the criminals are and do not report them. When residents of these communities commit crimes or aggressive acts such as robberies, their actions are reinforced when they escape the law and obtain positive reinforcement such as material possessions. The children in these communities learn aggression through social imitation. They also become desensitized towards aggression and view it as common and acceptable behavior in their community.

Aggressive behavior can also be a function of national culture. Residents of some countries show a more pervasive tendency to think of violence as means of solving problems than persons living in other nations (Archer & McDaniel, 1995). In some cultures, ones religious view is expressed aggressively with the subject sacrificing his or her life (in some cases risking the lives of others) for the sake of their god. In other cultures, aggressive behavior is influenced by sports. American football, Wrestling, Ice Hockey and Boxing promotes behavior that is intended to physically injure another person. I am by no means diminishing the sport to a mere exhibition of rough play but simply stating that some sports disguise aggressive behavior as part of the art.

Biological Perspectives

3.1 Electrical stimulations

Electrical stimulations and lesion in specific parts of the hypothalamus can influence one’s tendency to behave aggressively (Moyer, 1976). When a cat’s hypothalamus is stimulated using implanted electrodes, the animal hisses and would strike at any object that is placed in its cage. However, electrical stimulation of a different area of the hypothalamus causes the cat to act in a different way. Similarly, a laboratory rat bred in isolation from other rats and has never seen the aggressive behavior of a wild rat can live in harmony with a mouse. However, when the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated, the rat will attack and kill the mouse by using a similar technique that its untamed kin uses. By injecting the rat with a neurochemical blocker in the same area of the hypothalamus that was previously stimulated, the rat then becomes temporarily peaceful. These responses provide proof that animals have an innate aggressive drive that can become active or inactive with the right stimulus.

3.2 Neurotransmitters and behavior.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical that diffuses across the synaptic gap and stimulates the next neuron. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine are three of the most common chemicals found in the brain and are associated with aggressive behavior.

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is produced in the brain from an amino acid tryptophan and is involved in inhibiting impulsive responses to frustration such as aggression. Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) is an enzyme that controls the rate of synthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It can limit the production of serotonin since it is the only catalyst in the reaction producing serotonin. Therefore, serotonergic activity is linked to the deficiency of TPH. Serotonergic activity can be determined by measuring the levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid. Individuals who exhibit abnormal low levels of serotonin are said to suffer from serotonin depletion and were found to be more violent or impulsive than those who had normal serotonergic activity. Studies done by Linnoila and colleagues (1983) have found that men imprisoned for violent crimes have lower levels of serotonin than nonimpulsive violent offenders. Decreased serotonergic activity may produce some symptoms such as irrational behavior, anger, and obsessive worry; which can be treated by drugs such as prozac. Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor that manipulates serotonin levels. It inhibits the reuptake of serotonin into the neurons, enabling serotonin to remain active in the synapse for a longer period of time and therefore controls impulsive behavior.

Dopamine is used to regulate emotion and is also converted to norepinephrine which is affected by stress and moods in the brain. The release of norepinephrine and dopamine can be stimulated by the drugs classified as amphetamine. Prolonged use of amphetamines can result in hallucinations, paranoia and violent behavior. Scientist suggests that schizophrenia results from excess dopamine activity in certain brain regions or as a result from an abnormal sensitivity to dopamine. Evidence supporting this claim comes from the antipsychotic drugs which reduce psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia by blocking brain receptors from dopamine.

3.3 The influence of hormones on aggression.

The male sex hormone testosterone is associated with aggressive behavior in both humans and animals. Testosterone contributes to antisocial behavior in some women especially during the premenstrual period. The imbalance of the estrogen-progesterone ratio during the premenstrual period triggers both physical and psychological impairments such as changes in mood, depression, irritability and aggression. These elevated levels of aggression and irritability is associated with the hormone testosterone. Research has found that a significant number of females imprisoned for aggressive criminal acts were found to have committed their crimes during the premenstrual phase, and female offenders were found to be more irritable and aggressive during this period. Reinisch (1981) found that girls whose mothers were treated with a hormone similar to testosterone while pregnant grow up to be more aggressive than comparable control subjects. Research done by Olweus (1988) has also shown that adolescent boys who have more testosterone behave more aggressively when provoked. To control aggressive behavior in stallions, horse owners usually remove the testes of males that will not be used for breeding. All these studies have provided a link between testosterone and aggressive behavior.

3.4 The frustration-aggression hypothesis

Aggression, according to the drive theory, is created by some innate human need. The frustration-aggression hypothesis assumes that whenever a person is inhibited from reaching their goal an aggressive drive is induced that motivates behavior that causes the person to injure the person or object that is causing the frustration. This basic drive is like behavioral units of ability that are switched on or off as an appropriate challenge or task presents itself. In animals, this drive tells them when to migrate, when and how to court one another, when to feed their young, and so on. Animals like humans know what to do instinctively. For instance, if a person is being attacked by someone, their initial response may be to retaliate; frustration stimulates an inner drive that leads the victims to respond aggressively. This aggressive instinct or drive is what has allowed human beings to survive and protect their interest. Even though aggression is not a guaranteed response to frustration, it is certainly a frequent one. Laboratory studies have shown that animals behave aggressively in response to stressful situations. Caged animals respond aggressively to each other when they are shocked and the behavior then stops when the shocking has ended.

3.5 Psychoanalytic theory

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, asserts that human behavior is motivated by sexual and instinctive drives. When expressions of these instincts are repressed, these urges are displayed as aggression. Examples of expression of aggression are explained by Freud in his studies of childhood aggression and the Oedipal complex. A young boy begins to develop an intense sexual desire for his mother because she is the ultimate provider of love and food. The desire for his mother causes the boy to reject and display aggression toward his father because he views his father as a competitive rival for his mother’s affection. The boy later recognizes his father’s superiority and learns to reject his mother as a love object and eventually identifies with his father. The Oedipal complex relates to childhood aggression in girls. The theory is similar, in which the girl develops penis envy while trying to relate to her father and rejects her mother. The girl eventually realizes that her father is an inappropriate love object and identifies with her mother instead. These examples reveal the idea that aggression is an innate personality characteristic in all humans which is motivated by sexual drives.

3.6 Genetic contributions.

Behavior genetics combines the methods of genetics and psychology to study the inheritance of behavioral characteristics. Genes are the basic unit of heredity that determines the traits of human characteristics ranging from intelligence to height to emotionality. Selective breeding and twin and adoption studies have provided evidence for an association between genetic makeup and behavior. Selective breeding studies the inheritance of particular traits in animals. A study done on the inheritance of learning ability in rats provided evidence that intelligence is hereditary (Thompson, 1954). Rats that did poorly in learning to run the maze were mated with similar dull rats and those that did well (bright rats) were mated with other bright rats. After a few rodent generations, bright and dull strains of rats were produced. It is complicated to perform selective breeding studies on humans; however similarity in biological traits can be shown using twin and adoptive studies. In most studies of twins, the degree of consistency between the criminality of identical twins is approximately twice that of fraternal twins. In adoptive studies most cases reveal that criminality of the biological parent is a better predictor of the child's criminal involvement than the criminality of the adoptive parents. Research has shown that there is a hereditary predisposition for schizophrenia, since the risk of developing the illness is higher if an individual is genetically related to a schizophrenic person. In all the above studies subjects shared the common characteristic of genes, showing the relationship between non typical traits and genetics.

Links between biological and environmental factors

4.1 The Link between the frustration-aggression hypothesis and social learning

According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration stimulates a drive that leads to aggression. However, frustration is not the only variable that causes aggression. The response to frustration may differ depending on the kind of responses a person has learned to use in coping with frustrating situations. If a person has learnt (through imitation or social learning) that aggression can elicit a desired result, then they would respond to frustration with aggressive behavior. For example, people in poorer communities become frustrated when their physiological needs cannot be met and some are motivated to acquire these needs through crime. This is where social learning plays a role. When a person becomes frustrated they are motivated to react in a way that they learnt would produce results. People can learn that crime pays. Therefore, while frustration and aggression seem to be closely linked, the mere presence of frustration does not seem to suggest aggression, social learning is also an instigating factor.

4.2 The Link between aggressive behavior and people in poor communities

People in poorer communities may exhibit more aggression; not only because of frustration but their monetary limitations may hamper their ability to have proper diets, particularly one high in protein. The link is serotonin. Serotonin is produced in the brain from the amino acid tryptophan which is derived from foods high in protein. Tryptophan hydroxylase enzyme is the only catalyst in the reaction producing serotonin and can therefore limit its production. Therefore a person’s diet may control the levels of serotonin that their body produces. People with low serotonin levels are more likely to act aggressively.

4.3 The relationship between genetics and environment

Genetics may influence both development and behavior however, it fully determines neither. Genes are hereditable and are not affected by environment factors such as rearing conditions however rearing conditions can influence gene expression. A person’s genes may predispose them to mental illness, diabetes or aggressive behavior however environmental factors may cause the emergence of these conditions. Someone may carry the gene for diabetes and may never develop it however, obesity increases their risk. There is a hereditary predisposition for schizophrenia and the risk of developing it depends on how closely a person is related to someone with schizophrenia. Conversely, environmental stress can also trigger schizophrenia in a person that is predisposed to the mental illness. Although some children may be biologically inclined to behave aggressively, their behavior can be controlled by the environment. Instead of rearing an aggressive child in an environment that fosters more aggression, it is better to provide an environment that reduces the inclination for the child to act aggressively. Parents who promote hitting as a means of discipline and often quarrel in the presence of their children encourage their children to resolve conflict by using aggression. The probability of aggressive behavior transpiring depends on the situational factors. Sometimes the same stimulation that causes a person to react aggressively to one person may not trigger the same reaction towards someone else. These reactions are controlled by the cortex and are influenced by previous experiences and social influences. Aggressive behavior in monkeys can be induced by electrically stimulating certain areas of the brain. The final behavior depends on the monkey’s position in the hierarchical structure of the monkey colony. Dominant monkeys will exhibit aggres¬sive behavior when electrically stimulated in the presence of a submissive monkey but would suppress the aggressive behavior in the presence of another dominant monkey.

4.0 Freedom of choice

Unlike animals, humans are equipped with a large cerebral cortex that allows for reasoning, consideration, creativity and behavior control. Humans are not hard wired like computers, where given a fixed command or stimulus results in a fixed response. We have the ability to choose our course of action and our decisions are preceded by will and thought. This capability has enabled us to survive and stand greater than animals. Because of our ability to consciously choose the values we instill in our children, our species can influence the outcome of our children’s behavior. Choice is the ability to select from a number of alternatives. When frustrated an individual has the choice to react in a certain manner. They can think about something else, distance themselves, suppress their anger or even laugh it off. The magnificence of human complexity is our ability to choose from an infinite amount of possible reactions.

Conclusion

Is aggression biologically or environmentally based? The answer is simple. Aggression cannot be credited to just one origin. Biological and environmental factors are complementary in understanding the origin of aggression. The traditional phrase for the debate nature versus nurture should be re-phrased as nature being nurtured. A normal person must be provoked and aroused to act aggressively. A person may have a genetic predisposition to aggression but the act would not occur unless certain environmental influences are present. It is best to approach the nature nurture debate from a position that embraces both view points in order to truly understand the basis of aggression. Biology provides the instrument for aggression but environment teaches us how to use them.

REFERENCE LIST

1. MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS

Atkinson, Smith, Bem & Nolen-Hoeksema. Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology (13th edition)

Taylor, Stout, & Green. Biological Science one and two (2nd edition)

2. NO AUTHOR / EDITOR GIVEN

Does media violence really influence human behavior?

Genes and aggression: Is the propensity for violence inherited?

3. INTERNET ARTICLES

D’Orban, P.T. & J. Dalton. Violent crime and the menstrual cycle

McCawley, S. The nature of aggression (or is it nurture?)

Silvis, D. Brain-behavior and nature-nurture: Two interacting scientific debates.

4. WORKS IN SEVERAL VOLUMES

Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003

5. DOCTORAL DISSERTATION (PUBLISHED)

Fishbein, D. Biological Perspectives in Criminology. Published Doctoral Dissertation, University of Baltimore, Baltimore.

6. ARTICLES

Geen, R. The importance of learning in aggression. University of Missouri- Columbia

Rowell Huesmann, L. How biology influences human aggression. University of Michigan.

About the Author

Feminism and Brain Sex 2: Behavioral Sex is Biological

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The Biological Roots of Human Nature: Forging Links Between Evolution & Behavior $93.5 The Biological Roots of Human Nature: Forging Links Between Evolution & Behavior

Learning and Behavior: Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Perspectives $2.95 ISBN-13: 9780130323422 ISBN-10: 013032342X Title: Learning and Behavior: Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Perspectives. Author: Lewis M. Barker, Lewis Barker. Edition: 3rd.

Biological Foundations of Human Behavior With Infotrac $143.91 Wilson provides a thorough, engaging introduction to the underlying principles of biological psychology in 16 manageable chapters. Going beyond the typical boundaries, Wilson includes cutting-edge research from molecular biology, neuroscience, psychobiology, and neuropsychology to give the reader a more complete--yet accessible--understanding of the biological bases of human behavior. Wilson also offers a special focus on human behavior and physiology. This focus makes the text unique in the market, as most of the competing books emphasize animal models and include only limited human examples. This new text features an outstanding art program, carefully developed to clarify core concepts. Readers will find that each of Wilson's 16 chapters offers current research findings, an excellent use of everyday examples to make difficult concepts understandable, and pedagogy crafted to help students master the material.

The Biological Evolution of Religious Mind and Behavior $62.99 In a Darwinian world, religious behaviour - just like other behaviours - is likely to have undergone a process of natural selection in which it was rewarded in the evolutionary currency of reproductive success. This book gives insights into the biological roots and benefits of religion.

Biological Foundations of Behavior $107.7 This book is in Used condition

The Biological Bases of Human Behavior $58.7 No Synopsis Available

gender masculine

Gender Neutral Language

Gender-neutral language (also called gender-inclusive language, non-sexist language, sex-neutral language or politically-correct language) is becoming increasingly frequent in written and spoken language, and attempts not to favor either gender over the other in contexts where the gender of a person or group of people is ambiguous. The perceived need for inclusive language arises because, according to widely accepted norms of current usage, masculine pronouns no longer communicate a generic sense of “anyone.” Indeed, many people find such usage not only inaccurate but offensive. The practice of assigning masculine gender to neutral terms is said to come from the fact that every language "reflects the prejudices of the society in which it evolved, and English evolved through most of its history in a male-centered, patriarchal society." Many of the masculine terms in Modern English come from words which were not gender-specific in Old English. For example, the word mann was originally gender-neutral (though grammatically masculine) and could be used to refer to any adult human. For gender-specific usage, wer was used to mean "man," and wíf to mean "woman." Since then, "man" has replaced wer as the primary word referring to male persons, while also preserving its original gender-neutral meaning (people), especially in compounds such as "mankind." On the other hand, the word "woman" (from wífman, grammatically feminine) replaced wíf as the word for female person. The word "human" is from Latin humanus, the adjectival form of homo "human being" (also grammatically masculine but epicene). There is a growing awareness that language does not merely reflect the way we think: it also shapes our thinking. If words and expressions that imply that women are inferior to men are constantly used, that assumption of inferiority tends to become part of our mindset…. Language is a powerful tool: poets and propagandists know this—as, indeed, do victims of discrimination. In some cases, Gender-neutral language may be achieved through the use of gender-inclusive, gender-neutral or epicene words ("human being," "person," "individual," and so on) instead of gender-specific ones ("man," "he," "businessman," etc.), when speaking of people whose gender is unknown, ambiguous, or unimportant. If no gender-inclusive terms exist, new ones may be coined (e.g., "businessperson"), or there may be parallel usage of the existing gender-specific terms (as in "men and women," "he or she," "he/she," "(s)he," and so on). Inclusive language follows the principles of gender-neutral language and extends them to other areas of language, such as referring neither to adults nor children when discussing a person whose age cannot otherwise be determined.

About the Author

Jennifer Burns is the head of customer care center at Custom-Writing.org, coursework services. Having completed a number of academic assignments himself, Jennifer uses her knowledge to provide individualized customer support to students, who order research papers and termpaper

Ranking Trevor - MASCULINE GENDER MUSIC VIDEO PROMO

Masculine Domination $18.98 Masculine domination is so anchored in our social practices and our unconscious that we hardly perceive it; it is so much in line with our expectations that we find it difficult to call into question. Pierre Bourdieu’s analysis of Kabyle society provides instruments to help us understand the most concealed aspects of the relations between the sexes in our own societies, and to break the bonds of deceptive familiarity that tie us to our own tradition.Bourdieu analyzes masculine domination as a prime example of symbolic violence—the kind of gentle, invisible, pervasive violence exercised through the everyday practices of social life. To understand this form of domination we must also analyze the social mechanisms and institutions—family, school, church, and state—that transform history into nature and eternalize the arbitrary. Only in this way can we open up the possibilities for a kind of political action that can put history in motion again by neutralizing the mechanisms that have naturalized and dehistoricized the relations between the sexes.This new book by Pierre Bourdieu—which has been a bestseller in France—will be essential reading for anyone concerned with questions of gender and sexuality and with the structures that shape our social, political, and personal lives.

Masculine Marine $28.98 This exciting book was listed as #1 on The Advocate?s (ital) bestseller list for December 1996! In The Masculine Marine, author Steven Zeeland records, for the first time ever, what active-duty Marines have to say about what it means to be a man, to be a Marine, and to desire other men. As the foremost surviving icon of traditional masculinity, Marines are often considered the opposite of “gay.” Yet in contemporary gay culture, Marines are stereotyped as likely to play the passive role in sexual encounters with other men. By vividly illustrating some of the startling ways in which gay and Marine attributes can coincide, The Masculine Marine uncovers the wild sexual contradictions built into military hypermasculinity. From ordinary grunts to a major who flies a combat jet, Zeeland?s Marine interviewees provide thoughtful and articulate insight into aspects of this rarely documented culture, including:homoerotic bonding among Marineshow gay Marines reconcile their sexual identity with the ethos of “hard” Marine supermasculinityhow some Marines eroticize the pain and humiliation of Marine Corps boot campMarines in all-male pornographymale attitudes toward women in the Marine Corpshazing and institutional violence These Marines talk candidly about what motivated them to join the United States’most elite fighting force, and they reveal how becoming Marines has shaped their sexual and gender identities. For the student of gay or military studies or anyone sexually intrigued by men in uniform, The Masculine Marine must reading. Visit Steven Zeeland at his home page: http://www.stevenzeeland.com

Masculine Singular $22.48 Masculine Singular is an original interpretation of French New Wave cinema by one of France's leading feminist film scholars. While most criticism of the New Wave has concentrated on the filmmakers and their films, Geneviève Sellier focuses on the social and cultural turbulence of the cinema's formative years, from 1957 to 1962. The New Wave filmmakers were members of a young generation emerging on the French cultural scene, eager to acquire sexual and economic freedom. Almost all of them were men, and they "wrote" in the masculine first-person singular, often using male protagonists as stand-ins for themselves. In their films, they explored relations between men and women, and they expressed ambivalence about the new liberated woman. Sellier argues that gender relations and the construction of sexual identities were the primary subject of New Wave cinema. Sellier draws on sociological surveys, box office data, and popular magazines of the period, as well as analyses of specific New Wave films. She examines the development of the New Wave movement, its sociocultural and economic context, and the popular and critical reception of such well-known films as Jules et Jim and Hiroshima mon amour. In light of the filmmakers' focus on gender relations, Sellier reflects on the careers of New Wave's iconic female stars, including Jeanne Moreau and Brigitte Bardot. Sellier's thorough exploration of early New Wave cinema culminates in her contention that its principal legacy--the triumph of a certain kind of cinephilic discourse and of an "auteur theory" recognizing the director as artist--came at a steep price: creativity was reduced to a formalist game, and affirmation of New Wave cinema's modernity was accompanied by an association of creativity with masculinity.

Masculine/Feminine $18.48 Nelly Richard is one of the most prominent cultural theorists writing in Latin America today. As a participant in Chile’s neo-avantgarde, Richard worked to expand the possibilities for cultural debate within the constraints imposed by the Pinochet dictatorship (1973–1990), and she has continued to offer incisive commentary about the country’s transition to democracy. Well known as the founder and director of the influential Santiago-based journal Revista de crítica cultural, Richard has been central to the dissemination throughout Latin America of work by key contemporary thinkers, including Néstor García Canclini, Jacques Derrida, Fredric Jameson, and Diamela Eltit. Her own writing provides rigorous considerations of Latin American identity, postmodernism, gender, neoliberalism, and strategies of political and cultural resistance.Richard helped to organize the 1987 International Conference on Latin American Women’s Literature in Santiago, one of the most significant literary events to take place under the Pinochet dictatorship. Published in Chile in 1993, Masculine/Feminine develops some of the key issues brought to the fore during that landmark meeting. Richard theorizes why the feminist movement has been crucial not only to the liberation of women but also to understanding the ways in which power operated under the military regime in Chile. In one of her most widely praised essays, she explores the figure of the transvestite, artistic imagery of which exploded during the Chilean dictatorship. She examines the politics and the aesthetics of this phenomenon, particularly against the background of prostitution and shantytown poverty, and she argues that gay culture works to break down the social demarcations and rigid structures of city life. Masculine/Feminine makes available, for the first time in English, one of Latin America’s most significant works of feminist theory.

The Masculine Self $5.98 Significantly expanded, updated, and improved with 50% new material, this is a comprehensive review of scholarly research and theory in men’s studies. No other book can approach it in its coverage of the volume of men’s studies research, its provision of a theoretical context for understanding the research, and its boxed features--most of which highlight the human aspects of the subject matter. Organized in three parts, the book offers a view of masculinity from a wide variety of perspectives. The first two chapters provide an introduction to contemporary concepts of men and masculinity, as well as the scientific study of sex and gender. In the second section, these concepts are applied to the major schools of psychological theory: psychobiology, social learning, humanism/existentialism, psychoanalysis, and socioculturalism. The last part of the book summarizes “men’s issues:” work, emotion, relationships, physical health, mental health, violence, and the changing definitions of what it means to be male in contemporary society.

Gender $130 Gender is a fascinating category, central and pervasive in some languages and totally absent in others. In this new, overall account of gender systems, over 200 languages are discussed, from English and Russian to Archi and Chichewa. More detailed analysis of individual languages provides clear illustrations of specific types of systems. Gender distinction is often based on sex; sometimes this is only one criterion and the gender of nouns depends on other factors (thus house is masculine in Russian, feminine in French and neuter in Tamil). On occasion there are equivalent distinctions such as human/non-human, animate/inanimate, where sex is irrelevant.

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The Rules For The Gender Of French Nouns: Why Your Arm Is Masculine But Your Leg Is Feminine, And Other Mysteries Of The French Language $11.35 The Rules For The Gender Of French Nouns: Why Your Arm Is Masculine But Your Leg Is Feminine, And Other Mysteries Of The French Language

Modernism's Masculine Subjects $10.98 In the era of The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit -- when social pressures on men to conform threatened cherished notions of masculine vitality, freedom, and authenticity -- modernist paintings came to be seen as metaphorical embodiments of both idealized and highly conflicted conceptions of masculine selfhood. In Modernism's Masculine Subjects, Marcia Brennan traces the formalist critical discourses in which work by such artists as Henri Matisse, Willem de Kooning, and Jackson Pollock could stand as symbolic representations that at once challenged and reproduced such prevailing cultural conceptions of masculinity. Rejecting the typical view of formalism's exclusive engagement with essentialized and purified notions of abstraction and its disengagement from issues of gender and embodiment, Brennan explores the ways in which these categories were intertwined, historically and theoretically. Brennan makes new use of writings by Clement Greenberg and other powerful critics describing the works of Matisse, the postwar New York School abstract expressionists, and their successors, the post-painterly abstractionists. The paintings of Matisse, she argues, were represented in part as intellectually engaged and culturally respectable centerfolds. Brennan examines de Kooning's Woman series -- perhaps the most significant effort to incorporate feminine presence within abstract expressionist imagery -- as extended cultural metaphors for bourgeois masculinity's conflicted relationship with its feminine "others." She also shows how the aggressive energy of Pollock's nonfigural painterly idiom became domesticated in the press by the repeated pairing of his work with images of Pollock in the studio and at home with his wife, the artist Lee Krasner. Finally, discussing the rise of the post-painterly abstractionists in the sixties, Brennan shows how, both despite and because of the critical presence of Helen Frankenthaler, formalist responses to the works of Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland provided an opportunity to promote idealized conceptions of masculine creativity.

Constructing the Black Masculine $23.48 In seven representative episodes of black masculine literary and cultural historyâ??from the founding of the first African American Masonic lodge in 1775 to the 1990s choreographies of modern dance genius Bill T. Jonesâ??Constructing the Black Masculine maps black men’s historical efforts to negotiate the frequently discordant relationship between blackness and maleness in the cultural logic of American identity. Maurice O. Wallace draws on an impressive variety of material to investigate the survivalist strategies employed by black men who have had to endure the disjunction between race and masculinity in American culture. Highlighting their chronic objectification under the gaze of white eyes, Wallace argues that black men suffer a social and representational crisis in being at once seen and unseen, fetish and phantasm, spectacle and shadow in the American racial imagination. Invisible and disregarded on one hand, black men, perceived as potential threats to society, simultaneously face the reality of hypervisibility and perpetual surveillance. Paying significant attention to the sociotechnologies of vision and image production over two centuries, Wallace shows how African American menâ??as soldiers, Freemasons, and romantic heroesâ??have sought both to realize the ideal image of the American masculine subject and to deconstruct it in expressive mediums like modern dance, photography, and theatre. Throughout, he draws on the experiences and theories of such notable figures as Frederick Douglass, W. E. B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, and James Baldwin.Combining literary theory, visual art theory, race and ethnic studies, psychoanalysis, and performance studies, this book will interest students and scholars of race, literature, gender studies, and American history and culture.

Gender Conundrum $23.95 Offering an international perspective on the masculine and feminine interplay of body and psyche in psychoanalysis, this book fills a considerable gap in the literature, providing a classic text for psychoanalysis and gender studies

Gender and Holiness $80 This volume examines gender-specific religious practices and contends that the pursuit of holiness can destabilize binary gender itself. Though saints may be classified as masculine or feminine, holiness may also cut across gender divisions and demand a break from normally gendered behaviour.

Masculine Cross $16.76 Masculine Cross

Masculine & Feminine $25.08 Masculine & Feminine

Masculine Feminine $12.97 Masculine Feminine

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Masculine Shame $87.3 Masculine Shame